Men and Women Engaging in Non-traditional Sports :: Sociology Essays Research Papers

Men and Women Engaging in Non-traditional Sports What are the social and cultural costs and benefits of an individual (male or female) entering a non-traditional sport for their gender/sex (e.g. women who enter body building, power lifting, boxing; men who enter synchronized swimming or field hockey)? Social change has been marked by men and women participating in non-traditional roles for their sex. Athletics is one field where non-traditional roles are both applauded and derided by society. Female body-builders and male ice-skaters push the boundaries of what is socially acceptable in our society. While there are many rewards for such activity, there are also many costs, both to society and to the individual. There are many cultural and personal costs to engaging in non-traditional sport. Women and men face personal humiliation and the derision of friends, family, and society. They can be denied advancement in the work force, be ostracized by society, and suffer a multitude of slights and slurs. Women, in particular, bear the brunt of this particular brand of humiliation. Mere personal humiliation is not the only cost of non-traditional participation in sport. Some people may see it as a lessening of the game. For example, there are slightly different rules for women's basketball then for male basketball. By allowing women to play and compete in a supposedly "weaker" version of the game, we lessen the value of the game and the competition in which the players are engaged. Such difference also reinforces cultural beliefs that men and women cannot compete on a level playing field. Supposedly, women must have easier rules, because otherwise, they would not be able to play. This particular cultural attitude can arise from women participating in sport. However, it is a goal of such participation that that attitude be eliminated from our society. There are also a number of benefits to men and women engaging in supposed non-traditional activities. It pushes the boundaries or what is acceptable in our society, paving the way for future pioneers. It makes difference more acceptable in our society by not backing down. We can only become more accepting of other people when there are such extreme points of view out there to compare our opinions to. Athletics, in general, benefits with the presence of both men and women in all sports. With such a wide range of potential competition, sport is much more exciting and rewarding - personally and monetarily. Both sexes contribute something to their respective sport, and challenge the other to accept new ideas and change.

Aggression-Discuss the Three Psychological Approaches Essay

What is aggression? During my research, I have noted various definitions of aggression and have often found it to be coupled with violence. This human trait is so complex that it is difficult to pinpoint any one description, but I believe that for the purpose of this essay, this extremely loose term will have to suffice, as aggression is viewed differently according to the different approaches. â€Å"Aggression – a wide variety of acts that involve attack† (The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology-Third Edition 2001) In this essay, I will explain and evaluate three psychological approaches of aggression from Sigmund Freud, Burrhus F Skinner and Carl R Rogers. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed the psychoanalytical theory of the personality, whereby he divided it into layers; the unconscious, preconscious and the conscious. These represented different levels of awareness in our minds. He also described the personality as the id, which is essentially what we are born with and is where the basic sexual and aggressive drives reside, the ego, which starts to develop as soon as interaction with the environment begins, and the superego, which represents the moral aspect of humans according to society’s standards and values. He believed that we are born with these inner feelings of aggression, which we use as a tool to obtain the things we want, but unfortunately, society restricts the use of this horrible behaviour for obvious reasons. The display of aggressive behaviour would cause us to lose love and respect ending in lowered self-esteem. In order to get through life without imposing this unacceptable behaviour upon society, we have in our superego, incorporated something called ‘guilt’, which in turn makes us feel ashamed of this pushy, demanding insistence of gratification side of ourselves. However, this causes within us an eternal conflict that rages on through our everyday lives, in the unconscious level of our minds, where we only dimly recognise it. He was however, concerned that these energies could not be permanently ‘bottled up’ and suggested that redirection of these energies (catharsis)  into other channels ie.sport, work would be more socially acceptable. He called this sublimation and suggested that a good society would make this possible. Nevertheless, he remained pessimistic about this also as it only redirected the energy of aggression and did not really deal with the source of the ‘problem’. Freud (1920) called the destructive force that forms aggression, Thanatos -the death instinct (Beyond the Pleasure Principle 1920) and believed that this is a natural human condition that is also aimed at ourselves. However, our natural life instincts prevent anything happening, but Freud thoroughly believed that the destruction of ourselves is inevitable, as aggression will always be at war with society and therefore the greatest obstacle to peace. Burrhus F Skinner (1904-1990) who favoured the behaviourist approach to psychology, criticised the psychoanalytical theory by suggesting that psychology should be the study of behaviour and not just the mind. However, Skinner’s approach was radical, in that he did consider our inner thoughts and feelings, but denied that they had anything to do with behaviour (Skinner 1974). His study of behaviour involved close contact with the experimental laboratory, where he experimented with small animals such as rats and pigeons. As the experimenter, he was able to study the use of stimuli and reinforcement (cause and reward) of behaviour. Skinner pointed out that aggression, like any other form of behaviour, is a result of social and physical issues in our environments. With this in mind, he believed that human behaviour is therefore controllable. In Skinner’s view, if aggression is apparent in a person, then it is determined by past and present relevant events, together with genetic endowment, hereditary factors that are passed through our genes in the process of evolution. He argued that full knowledge of these two sets of factors, genetic endowment and personal history, hold the key to controlling behaviour such as aggression. The behaviourist approach fails to acknowledge individual free will and choice however, and the frustrations involved in the inability to express  these. It is often these unobservable issues that cause behaviours, such as aggression. When looking at positive reinforcement, Skinner often refused to consider the mental causes of aggression ie if a drunk tries to start a fight with you in a pub, Skinner’s theory would indicate that the best form of action from previous experience would be to walk away. This however, ignores the events leading up to this point, and you may decide to stay and fight or maybe stay and make friends. The mind selects a response according to the desired consequence, which is a natural part of every function we perform but is not a straightforward case of positive reinforcement. Carl R Rogers (1902-1987) was the founder of the humanistic approach to behaviour and like Maslow, he believed that there was nothing ‘bad’ about human behaviour and that we are capable of healthy growth towards Self Actualisation. This means that we have the potential to reach fulfilment and achieve warm relationships with others through acceptance and understanding of what we as humans are. In order to understand the actualising tendency, Rogers claims that we should firstly be congruent, meaning that we should be aware of our inner feelings and accept them as a part of our nature. In this respect, what we express from those feelings is pure and true. Secondly, we should be able to empathise with our fellow man, in that we can understand what everything means to them from their point of view, as if we were in their ‘world’. Thirdly, we should be able to convey unconditional positive regard, meaning that we should be able to accept things as they are and who our fellow man is, without judgement or prejudice and without placing conditions upon their worth. These are three essential ingredients for healthy growth towards being a fully functioning person. Obviously, with an approach such as this, there is little room for negative feelings such as aggression. Because of this positive force for healthy growth, Rogers believed that aggression could possibly be a result of a state of incongruence, where we may feel conflict between our sense of self and our ideal self (like Freud’s ego and superego) ie. When we become aware of our own set of values but are told by our parents to respect their set of values, taught to us previously, and the use of conditional regard is applied to enforce those values. This could  possibly cause aggression by way of retaliation. However, he would not see aggression as inevitable or even an appropriate response, only as a possible response. Rogers’ theory opposes Freud’s in that aggression is inevitable. However, these two approaches are similar in that they both believe that aggression is a result of conflict in the mind – Rogers’ sense of self and the ideal self are similar to Freud’s ego and superego. However, Rogers argues that we are not doomed as Freud views it. Rogers, who was optimistic about human nature, believed that rather than trying to repress the desires and needs that aggression demands, a self-actualised person would see that aggression is a part of our nature and that acceptance of it, along with all other feelings, serve to help us grow healthily in the way of a fully functioning person. As a humanist, Rogers believed that to try to hide from what is inherently a part of us is futile and the only approach to make is that of acceptance in order to believe in ourselves. He also recognised that aggression could be a healthy behaviour, as in competition. Freud’s view that aggression is a common human characteristic does not constitute proof that it is innate. His views on catharsis as being a way of controlling the drives also lack support, and indeed support from one of his earlier disciples, Alfred Alder. With regard to aggression being innate and inherent, is aggression the result of genetics, or is it simply an excuse we use for violent behaviour? Could the answer lie in our environment and what we learn from it? Experiments performed by behaviourists such as Skinner have proved this, but do they offer all the answers? Is man born a completely blank slate? If that is the case, why do we keep messing up? Is this what Skinner meant when he maintained that man takes immediate gratification rather than looking at the long-term consequences? The different approaches of Freud and Skinner offer interesting theories about the sources of aggression. Take violence on the television for instance. Freud may have considered this as a cathartic experience thus reducing the drive of aggression by way of siphoning off the built up pressure as discussed earlier. On the other hand however, Skinner would  consider that violence on the television would serve to condition us to be more violent and therefore increase aggression. In conclusion, it seems that each approach holds some validity whilst there is still room for further research. Freud discussed aggression and its source at great length but did not really offer any sound evidence about how to reduce it. Neither did he encourage further research into collecting more information about it. Skinner, on the other hand, had rather strong opinions about how to deal with aggression but offered little information as to its source. Rogers had little to say about what aggression actually is but whilst his opinions on how to deal with it seemed realistic and acceptable, his theory, like Freud’s, offers no real proof. However, early as these theories were, they did offer some valuable contributions to the theory of aggression. Theories which have developed over the years and are continuing to do so, even though the reasons for aggression, and indeed all other human emotions, still elude us, remaining continually beyond scientific explanation. BIBLIOGRAPHY Glassman, William E (2000) Approaches to Psychology (3rd Edition) Buckingham and Philadelphia USA Open University Press Reber, Arthur A and Emily (2001) The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology (Third Edition) London, Penguin Books Ltd Nye, Robert D (1975) Three Psychologies: Perspectives from Freud, Skinner and Rogers (Fourth Edition) California, Brooks/Cole (Wadsworth Inc) http://www.goldenessays.com/free_essays/3/psychology/human_aggression.shtml (accessed 30 12 2002) http://www.term-papers.u/ts/gb/pnl141.shtml (accessed 30 12 2002) www.stolaf.edu/people/huff/classes/intro/skinner.html (accessed 30 12 2002) http://www.free_termpapers.com/tp/37/pko72.shtml (accessed 30 12 2002) http://www.free_termpapers.com/tp/37/pnl135.shtml (accessed 30 12 2002)

Best Practices in Estimating the Cost of Capital Survey...

Overview This case study focuses on where financial theory ends and practical application of the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) begins. It presents evidence on how some of the most financially complex companies and financial advisors estimated capital costs and focuses on the gaps found between theory and application. The approach taken in the paper differed from their predecessors in several various respects. Prior published information was solely based on written, closed-end surveys sent to a large number of firms, without a focused topic. The study set out to see if financial theory, specifically cost-of-capital, is truly ubiquitous in true business applications. The Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) Companies†¦show more content†¦Variations Within the Components of CAPM Their survey results found that there were substantial variations with all three components of the CAPM. †¢ Risk Free Rate of Return In the risk-free rate of return, the choice of the risk-free rate can have an effect on the cost of equity. More specifically, the cost of a short-term stock is typically used to gauge a short-term risk free rate, and typically a long-term stock is used to measure a long-term risk free rate. Since corporate projects are usually long-term projects, companies have a preference in using long-term bond yields. †¢ Beta For beta, there are mainly two different ways to calculate the value for beta. The first is to calculate it yourself based on historical data. By using this method, you run the risk of using inaccurate data if you choose a period that is too broad or narrow. Conversely, the other way to determine it is to use published sources such as Bloomberg and Standard Poor’s. Similar to using historical data to determine beta, there are variations in these published sources for the values of beta. As a result, the calculation of the overall cost of capital will vary depending on which source of beta youShow MoreRelatedEssay on Case 13 - Best Practices in Estimating the Cost of Capital1342 Words   |  6 PagesBest Practices in Estimating the Cost of Capital: Survey and Synthesis Case 13 Teaching Notes Introduction â€Å"Each year in the US, corporations undertake more than $500 billion in capital spending† (Bruner 184). This case presents a reasonably analyzed set of teaching notes describing how these financially sophisticated corporations estimate their capital costs. 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Higgins â€Å"Cost of capital is so critical to things we do, and CAPM has so many holes in it—and the books don’t tell you which numbers to use†¦ so at the end of the day, you wonder a bit if you’ve got a solid number. Am I fooling myself with this Theories on cost of capital have beenRead MoreFinance Case Study2989 Words   |  12 Pagestopics includes value creation, market efficiency, economic profit, financial analysis and forecasting, cost of capital, capital budgeting, dividend policy, equity issuance, capital structure management, derivative securities, and mergers and acquisitions. The spirit of these cases is to link the study of value creation with a respect for the administrative point of view, and an orientation toward capital markets. 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Answer: FALSE Diff: 2 Question Tag: Definition (Concept) Objective: 2-6 64) The revenue premium approach to estimating brand equity compares a branded product to the same product without a brand name, such as a private label brand. Answer: TRUE Diff: 2 Question Tag: Definition (Concept) Objective: 2-6 65) The consumer value method of estimating brand equity attempts to measure the value of a brand based on input from consumers through measures such as familiarity, quality

Video Games And Its Effects - 824 Words

Main Idea/ Claim: Violent video games are causally linked to untreated mental illness, as identified in recent mass murderers. Introduction: Adam Lanza. Eric Harris. Dylan Klebold. Jared Lee Loughner. Anders Behring. James Holmes. All six of these teenage shooters have one thing in common. They were all addicted to video games. Each of these young men spent hours and hours on end watching violent films and playing video games. According to a study by The New York Times,â€Å"80 percent of high school-age boys say they play video games, most of which are thought to be violent, and perhaps a third to a half of those players have a habit of 10 hours a week or more.† Could these boys grow up to be mass murders like the others? Research has†¦show more content†¦Reason #1: Multiple recent mass shooters were addicted to violent video games or films. A journalist, Benedict Carey, from the New York Times suggests, â€Å"the young men who opened fire at Columbine High School, at the movie theater in Aurora, Colo., and in other massacres had this in common: they were video gamers who seemed to be acting out some dark digital fantasy. It was as if all that exposure to computerized violence gave them the idea to go on a rampage — or at least fueled their urges.† This evidence demonstrates that these monsters that committed these awful crimes seemed to have been acting out massacres only found in the horrifically violent video games. â€Å"The video games these days are more realistic and bloodier than ever.† This quote shows that the addicted shooters were taking the horrendous circumstances, as shown in the violent video games, and acting it out in real-life. Some people think that playing violent video games can let out anger in a fantasy-like setting and not real life. On the contrary, violent video games teaches children that it is okay to assassinate someone when you are wrathful, but these situations are only allowed in violent video games. In conclusion, multiple recent mass shooters were addicted to video games, so they had seemed to be acting out a digital fantasy, only legal in violent video games. Violent video games are teaching kids that it is right to bomb a

Is Marriage A Patriarchal Society - 1196 Words

Although marriage may have different meanings according to different cultures, the Merriam-Webster dictionary defines it as â€Å"the state of being united to a person of the opposite sex as husband or wife in a consensual and contractual relationship recognized by law.† Spouses are partners that grow old together, sharing their lives and responsibilities. The choice of a partner, however, also depends on the culture; it can be influenced by social norms, parental approval, or individual desire. In patriarchal societies such as the ones depicted in â€Å"Giribala† and â€Å"Wedding at the Cross,† fathers are responsible to determine if a partner is suitable for their daughters. Ngugi Wa Thiong’o and Mahasweta Devi present in their respective works two strong, hardworking female characters faced with challenging circumstances that have to learn how to make their own choices and find their voices in a world dominated by men. 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Projectiles Practical Report Free Essays

Projectiles Practical Report 1. Introduction Velocity is a vector measurement of the rate and direction of motion or, in other terms, the rate and direction of the change in the position of an object. [1] Velocity can be found many ways through various suvat Equations and their rearranged forms. We will write a custom essay sample on Projectiles Practical Report or any similar topic only for you Order Now For example v2=u2+2as in which the square of the final velocity can be found if you know the objects initial velocity, the acceleration and the distance travelled. Using such formulae makes it possible to test equipment, efficiently and accurately. . Aim The aim of this practical is to build and evaluate the performance of a marble launcher, this is done by first finding the velocity of the marble using the equation v2=u2+2as, this will be done by conducting an experiment to first find the vertical distance (s) the marble travels and acceleration due to gravity (a). This will then be used to find the time the marble will travel for at angles of 30o, 45o and 60o using the equation v=u=at, rearranging this equation to find the time the marble will travel at will become, . Taking the value and doubling it will give you the time it takes to reach the peak velocity and return to rest. This value is then used to predict the range the marble will travel from a set angle via the rule Distance = Speed X Time. These distances will be compared to actual distances tested and evaluated. 3. Procedure 3. 1 Apparatus †¢ Protractor or set square †¢ Meter rule †¢ Small sand pit †¢ Safety spectacles †¢ Compression spring †¢ 1cm diameter plastic conduit †¢ 1cm diameter rubber bung to fit †¢ Marble †¢ Nail 3. 2 Method 1. Firstly the assembly of the launcher, after placing the nail through the pre-cut hole transecting the pipe, the marble is placed inside followed by the spring, the bung is fixed securely in the bottom of the pipe causing tension on the spring which is held until the pin is released. 2. Fixing the launcher to a clamp stand secures that during firing of the marble it will remain at the same angle. 3. Start the experiment by firing the marble vertically to find an average result for the distance the marble travels (Table 4. 1). 4. After this the results can then be used to find the Velocity of the marble. . Using the calculated velocity and suvat equations an estimation for the distance travelled by the marble and the time the marble travelled for can be found for set angles of launch measuring 30o, 45o and 60o. 6. Actual results are then compiled (Table 4. 2). 7. And compared to the estimates (Table 4. 3). 4. Results Table 4. 1: Table showing the mean height travelled by the marble Hei ght travelled by marble (cm) 1 129 2 103 3 98 AVERAGE HEIGHT = 110cm or 1. 1m From this result the Velocity can be determined using the equation v2=u2+2as v2=02+2(9. 8Ãâ€"1. 1) 2=21. 56 v = 4. 64 ms-1 With this result for v the times for each angle can be calculated using the equation v=u=at, rearranging this equation to find the time the marble will travel will become, . and so for the angles 30o, 45o and 60o the calculations are as follows. 600) = = 0. 24s to 2 d. p 450) = = 0. 33 to 2 d. p 300) = = 0. 41 to 2 d. p To find and estimate a distance from the times found previously the value for time is used to predict the range the marble will travel from a set angle via the rule Distance = Speed X Time, speed we know to be 4. 4ms from earlier in the experiment. And time for this calculation is double that of the value found previously because we only worked out the peak velocity, doubling the time compensates for the time taken to reach the peak and the time taken to return to the sand pit. Lm 600) Distance = Speed X Time = 4. 64 x Cos60 x 0. 48 = 1. 93m 450) Distance = Speed X Time = 4. 64 x Cos45 x 0. 66 = 2. 17m 300) Distance = Speed X Time = 4. 64 x Cos30 x 0. 82 = 1. 90m These values are the estimates for the distance travelled by the marble from a launcher at set angles. Table 4. : Table showing the testing of the launcher at set angles. Test 1 (m) Test 2 (m) Test 3 (m) Average (m) 600 1. 3 1. 4 1. 2 1. 3 450 1. 8 1. 8 1. 8 1. 8 300 1. 6 1. 6 1. 7 1. 63 The averages for each angle when calculated are then compared to the estimates made previously. Table 4. 3: Table showing the time taken, the estimated distance travelled and the actual distance travelled by the marble at set angles of trajectory. Angle of Trajectory Time (s) Estimated Distance (m) Actual Distance (m) 600 0. 24 1. 93 1. 50 450 0. 33 2. 17 1. 80 300 0. 41 1. 90 1. 65 5. Summary 5. 1 Discussion The practical was simple enough to evaluate the performance of a marble launcher. It did this efficiently and without major complication. The assembly of the launcher is straightforward with simple components and functions, the testing is easy to carry out, and the results found from the experiment are fairly accurate. 5. 2 Conclusion From the results it was found that the actual distance was less then the estimated distance in all three scenarios. The results did however show similarities between the two sets of data. Both sets showed a pattern where the 30o and 60o values were lower than the 45o value. These two results also appeared to be very similar values in both the estimated and actual calculations. 5. 3 Evaluation The experiments accuracy is fair but could be improved, due to the need for a person to operate the launchers release mechanism, consistency is lost during each firing of the launcher, this could be improved with a mechanical release mechanism or a different style of launcher for example a compressed air powered device. 6. Reference [1] Andrew Zimmerman Jones. 2012. Velocity – Definition of velocity. [WWW] http://physics. about. com/od/glossary/g/velocity. htm. (17 October 2012) How to cite Projectiles Practical Report, Essay examples

Madame Bovary The Tragic Love Triangle Of Yonvill Essay Example For Students

Madame Bovary: The Tragic Love Triangle Of Yonvill Essay eMadame Bovary: The Tragic Love Triangle of YonvilleGustave Fluberts masterpiece, Madame Bovary, was first published in 1857. The novel shocked many of its readers and caused a chain reaction that spread through all of France and ultimately called for the prosecution of the author. Since that time however, Madame Bovary, has been recognized by literature critics as being the model for the present literary period, being the realistic novel period. It is now considered a novel of great worth and one which contains an important and moving plot. In addition, it provides a standard against which to compare the works of writers to follow. It is nearly impossible to truly understand modern European and American fiction without reading, Madame Bovary. Charles Bovary, the only son of a middle-class family, became a doctor and set up his practice in a rural village. He then married a women who was quite older then himself. He was unhappily married to her saying that Her dresses barely hung on her bony frame, This coming right before her death. Upon his wifes death, Charles married an attractive young women named Emma Roualt, the daughter of one of his patients. Emma married Charles with overwhelming expectations. She thought marriage would be filled with three things, bliss, passion, and ecstasy. Emma had a character that was 1) dissatisfied 2) adulterous and 3) free spending. For a while she was excited and pleased by her marriage, but overwhelmed by her new life, she quickly became dissatisfied. As a result of her dissatisfaction she became mentally ill. For the sake of her health the Bovarys moved to a new town, Yonville, where their daughter was born. Emmas unhappiness continued, and she began to have romantic feelings toward Leon, a young law clerk. After Leon left the town in order to attend law school. Emmas boredom and frustration became more intense after Leon left. She began to forget her role as a wife and mother. Charles tried many times to please but none of his efforts were successful, and she did not value or understand Charles love for her. Finally Emma had an adulterous affair with Rodolphe, a local land owner. Upon realizing Emmas intentions of an affair with him he states that he is Gasping for love, and this wins her heart over. Rodolphe then leaves for a period of six weeks and Emma then becomes seriously ill again. After her recovery, Rodolphe returns and the only explanation for his actions is Absence makes the heart grow fonder. She then runs across Leon in Rowen and began to resume were they left off. In order to afford the trips to Rowen to see Leon and satisfy her own needs, Emma spent her husbands money freely and incurred many debts. She kept this secret from Charles and managed to obtain a Power of Attorney, so that she would have full control over their financial affairs. Eventually her unpaid bills went long overdue and judgment was obtained against the creditors. She owed a vast sum of money, and the sheriffs officers arrived to confiscate the family property. Emma tried frantically to raise the money and finally turning to Leon, but he was unable to help, nor was he willing. She even tried to get back Rodolphe, by saying I stayed with you, because I couldnt tear myself away, he would have no part of her anymore and unwilling to help. Out of shame and despair of herself, she poisons herself to die. Shortly afterwards, now a ruined and broken man, also died, leaving their daughter to a life of poverty.